Title of Essay

Analyse the relationship between the example of Jesus and Christian conduct in 1 Peter

Commentary:

This has been my my strongest assignment so far. 88% and I am pleased with how it turned out. I found Katie Marcar’s work as I was about to start my deeper research for the assignment and between her, Edmund Clowney and John Elliott, I think I found a solid voice. I could have probably developed a counter argument and used that to create debate within the assignment and that probably would have created an interesting juxtaposition to take the assignment to an even better mark but I’m not greedy. Brought my overall NT2 mark to 82.65%.

Abstract

This essay examines how 1 Peter presents Jesus Christ as the exemplar for Christian conduct in a hostile world. Peter subverts Graeco-Roman ethical norms by replacing ancestral exemplars with Christ and redefining the believing community’s identity as God’s elect household. Through detailed analysis of 1 Peter 2:21-25 and related passages, this study demonstrates three key ways Jesus functions as an exemplar: his pattern of non-retaliation and silence in suffering, his trust in God’s just judgment, and his subsequent vindication through resurrection. Peter applies this pattern to specific household relationships – slaves, wives, husbands, elders and youths – showing how Christ’s example shapes Christian conduct across social contexts. The essay argues that Peter grounds ethical instruction in eschatological hope.   Believers follow Christ’s footsteps through suffering with confidence in future glory, transforming cultural shame into divine honour. This framework enables Christians to maintain faithful witness despite persecution, knowing that God vindicates those who follow Christ’s example.

Jesus as an exemplar of Christian Conduct

1 Peter 2:21

Introduction

In 1 Peter, the apostle subverts Graeco-Roman social ethics by grounding Christian conduct in a radically different framework, believers as God’s chosen people and their call to follow Jesus’ pattern of suffering servanthood.  Rather than conforming to cultural expectations around honour, Peter presents Christ as the exemplar whose unjust suffering and subsequent vindication establishes a pattern for Christian living in a hostile world.

Examining 1 Peter through this lens reveals three approaches.  Peter establishes believers as God’s elect and holy people with a new identity.  Christ exemplifies a pattern of suffering and vindication providing a model for Christian conduct.  Peter presents an eschatological framework demonstrating how future hope sustains living as Christ did in present hostile circumstances.

A Graeco-Roman Culture of Exempla

In the first Petrine epistle, the author[1] reminds his readers, “For to this you have been called, because Christ also suffered for you, leaving you an example, so that you might follow in his steps.” (1 Pet 2:21[2]).  Katie Marcar shows that Peter is using a footsteps metaphor as indicative of exemplars that was very prevalent in first century Graeco-Roman culture[3].  She asserts[4] that there are four explicit signals of exemplary discourse in 1 Peter including the use of the Greek ὑπογραμμόν (hypogrammon or “example”[5]); the use of the idiom “footsteps”; baptism as ἀντίτυπος (antitypos or “a thing resembling another”[6]) of Noah’s flood and the call in 5:3 for elders to be good examples to their flock.  There is a call to emulate Sarah in her obedience to Abraham (flawed as he was) in 3:5-6[7].  She argues that these signals are concentrated in the “ethical instruction” of the epistle which matches Graeco-Roman deployment of exempla in ethical discourse.[8]  Such terminology was found in Plato’s Republic, according to Marcar, where a son “at first emulates his father and follows in his footsteps”[9] and in Philo who speaks of the first man seeking to “please the Father and King, following him step by step…”[10] and extensively in the Latin (Cicero, Lucretius and Suetonius)[11]. 

She notes that the epistle refers extensively to God as begetter and father and the importance of obedience as children (eg 1 Pet 1:14).[12]  Romans had a strong culture of familial exempla.   Mere knowledge of one’s ancestors was not enough; it was expected that this knowledge should shape the youth.  Cicero writes of Rabirius Postumus, that even though he had never seen his father, he modelled himself after him.[13]  Marcar asserts that this became a pattern throughout the Graeco-Roman world by the first century, with a discernible pattern for a person becoming an exemplar as a result of a public act being evaluated by the community, commemorated in text or monument and then adopted as a norm.[14]  Marcar notes that Jews indulged in this custom during the second temple period as can be seen in Philo, Josephus and the Testament of Abraham.[15]

Subverting Cultural Norms

Like a dash of cold water, Peter flips the script on this cultural norm in chapter 1:18-19, “… the futile ways inherited from your forefathers…”.  This must have come as a shock to his readers.  The term πατροπαραδότου (patroparadotos – “handed down from one’s fathers or ancestors”[16]) is “typically referred to a positive and valued heritage in the Graeco-Roman world”.[17] Thus, Peter introduces a key theme of the epistle, the precious blood of Christ, but more than that substituting the familial relationship for that between God the Father, Jesus Christ, the precious lamb, and the obedient children, the believers (1 Pet 1:13-21).  As Marcar comments, “A new genealogy overwrites the old.”[18]  In 1 Pet 1:3 and again in verse 23, Peter appears to be readying his readers for this by reference to being “born again” (v3) and “since you have been born again” (v23).[19] 

However, he isn’t entirely subverting the cultural norm.  Instead, he replaces it with God as the Father and Christ as the exemplar demonstrating obedience to the Father (Jn 6:38) and thereby modelling for believers how they should walk.  So, he asserts their new identity as the family of God (1 Pet 2:9-10)[20] and gives them an example of good conduct to imitate in Jesus (1 Pet 2:21).  Reverence for ancestors is replaced by reverence for God the Father and imitation of Jesus Christ, the Son.[21]  It won’t be the first time he subverts a cultural norm.  In referring to Christ’s silence before suffering (1 Pet 2:21-24), he takes a cultural norm where only slaves keep silence and do not answer in the face of abuse[22] and flips it too.  He in fact uses the exemplar motif again in Chapter 5:3 by exhorting the elders to be examples to the flock, so clearly not entirely discarding the norm.  Pieter Vos adds an important caveat to the imitation motif, arguing for “a receptive grace [in Jesus] and an active partaking… becoming part of the new life of Christ”.[23]

Christ’s Suffering as Example for Believers

Peter’s thesis is laid out in the second chapter, “For to this you have been called, because Christ also suffered for you, leaving you an example, so that you might follow in his steps.” (1 Pet 2:21).  The context is in relation to household slaves[24] who are obedient regardless of circumstance because they are “mindful of God”.  Peter has just finished telling of their calling to “his marvellous light” (2:9) and now he tells them they are called to an example of suffering.[25]  Peter quotes Psalm 34 extensively (1 Pet 3:10-12 cf. Ps 34:12-16 and 1 Pet 2:3 cf. Ps 34:8) and it seems his mind is in Psalm 34:19 in 1 Peter 2:21, “Many are the afflictions of the righteous, but the Lord delivers him out of them all.”[26]  Of course, there are significant allusions to the “servant prophecies” of Isaiah 53 (cf. 3-6, 8, 10-12).[27]  The idea of the righteous suffering unjustly, as it relates to one “who in general was dishonoured, despised and shamed among humankind” but “was nevertheless vindicated by God” is a well-used motif in Scripture.[28]  David DeSilva shows how Peter brings this motif into focus for the readers of the epistle.  “While reminding the Christians of the greater honour they have attained and will attain by virtue of their association with Jesus, Peter also enables perseverance… by interpreting that perseverance positively. … [so that] it becomes the arena in which positive good can accrue to the steadfast believer.”[29]  The example of suffering extends beyond endurance to shape the believers’ entire life and identity.

As Edmund Clowney notes, two themes are woven together in this passage, the example of Christ’s suffering: leaving you an example and the saving purpose of Christ’s suffering: Christ suffered for you.[30]  In chapter 4, Peter encourages the believers to forsake human passions for the will of God (1 Pet 4:1-4).  As Karen Jobes notes, they will be persecuted by others for living differently and not participating in these behaviours (v1, 4).[31]  Elliott asserts, “having established the divine vindication of the suffering Christ, our author returns once more to Christ’s having suffered and died in the flesh as a model for Christian suffering…” (3:18) and now sets out the implications of this.[32]  Baptism (figurative death and resurrection), corresponding to the Noahic ark saving through water, is an “appeal to God for a good conscience, through the resurrection of Jesus Christ…” (3:20-21 cf. Rom 6:4; Col 2:10-15).[33] 

The suffering of Christ for sins (3:18) is an example of a way of thinking about the believers’ own sufferings as a cessation from sin devoted to the will of God (4:1-2).[34]  Clowney says, “Jesus is far more than our example; he is our sin bearer… in one brief sentence, Peter uses the prophecy of Isaiah to interpret what he had seen: Jesus going to his death… [this] contradicted the expectations of the disciples. But they did not contradict the words of the prophet.  Isaiah had said ‘He bore the sins of many’”. This conveys the heart of the Gospel.[35]  Clowney again, “How did Christ’s wounds bring healing to slaves who might also have felt the lash?… [they were called to] imitate him in receiving wounds for his sake.”[36]  In imitating Jesus, whether in being reviled or in being lashed without response or threats, Christ’s wounds heal at the root, the cause, the curse of sin.[37]

It is important not to overextend the sufferings mentioned later in chapter 4.  Keener notes that the fiery trials (4:12-13) could be mistaken for the Neronian persecutions but it is much more likely that Peter is referring to the refining process of being rejected by society (1 Pet 1:7 “Gold tried in the fire”).[38]  Note DeSilva, “Those who interpret the word must remember that what 1 Peter says about suffering is specifically about suffering hostility and censure for the sake of being associated with Christ. Our text only affirms this kind of suffering as ‘in accordance with God’s will’, since it is brought on by obedience to God’s commands and out of duty towards God.” (1 Pet 4:19)[39]  Believers are not called to seek suffering so that they can emulate Christ; they suffer (when they do) because they obey God and emulate Christ’s obedience.

Silence under Reviling

Returning to 1 Peter 2, the believers are given an example of silence (v23).  The suffering of the believers while including incidental violence (1 Pet 2:20 – unjust beatings), appears to have been more in the nature of neighbourly hostility (“malign” 1 Pet 2:12; 3:16 and “reviled” 4:14).  Craig Keener notes that in a society where only the lowest of the low did not respond to insults, keeping silent was a special kind of pain.[40]  In emulating the Lord, they were able to obtain solace.  This seems to be an allusion to Psalm 34 again.  “Keep your tongue from evil and your lips from speaking deceit. Turn away from evil and do good; seek peace and pursue it.” (vv 13-14).  This is a paradox.  Culturally, this was shame, but in God’s eyes, it is honour.  When reviled, they were not to speak, noting that they were always to be prepared to “make a defence (gk. apologia or reason or answer)[41]… with gentleness and respect.” (3:15).  Christ in suffering for our salvation did not revile again (2:23 cf. Isa 53:7), he spoke up when it was appropriate such as in calling out false prophets (Matt 7:15), the leaven of the Pharisees (Luke 12:1), whitewashed tombs (Matt 23:27) and in responding to the Jews who claimed Abraham as their father (John 8:39-40).  Believers are likewise to give a defence (1 Pet 3:15) at the appropriate time and place.  In Chapter 3:8-12, Peter links his audience to Psalm 34 (v13-14) and to his earlier admonition to emulate Christ in not reviling or speaking deceit (2:23).  Elliott notes that the chief concern here is on “doing what is right” in mutual humility and internal community cohesion and honourable interaction with those outside the community rather than on subordination.[42]

Non-Retaliation

In Peter’s key passage in chapter 2, he notes that Jesus did not threaten (v23).  The means of retaliation was at Jesus’ call.  In Matthew 26, Jesus could call on a legion of angels (v53).  He is acknowledging that he could retaliate if he chose, but the context is specific that he was obedient (v54).  For most believers who are being persecuted, they had no means of retaliation, but this is not the point.  They were instructed not to retaliate.  The example of Christ highlighted in chapter 2:23, is picked up by Peter again in chapter 3:9. “Do not repay evil for evil or reviling for reviling…”.  Perhaps, Peter was thinking of the Lord’s admonition to love your enemies and do good to those who hate you, to bless those who curse you and pray for those who abuse the believers (Luke 6:27-31).[43] 

Christ’s example was threefold.  He did not verbally retaliate, he did not threaten retaliation and most importantly, he trusted in God’s justice.  The application appears in chapter 3:9, “Do not repay evil for evil, or reviling for reviling, but on the contrary, bless for to this you were called, that you may obtain a blessing.” And again, in verse 14b-15a “Have no fear of them, nor be troubled, but in your hearts honour Christ the Lord as holy.” And again, in chapter 4:19, “Therefore let those who suffer according to God’s will, entrust their souls to a faithful Creator while doing good.”

Elliott notes that chapter 3:8-9 actually recalls other New Testament exhortations and indeed early Christian parenetic (moral or ethical) tradition unrelated to household management which the earlier context of the passage suggests (eg Rom 12:10-17).[44]  Clowney notes that this is the believers’ calling.[45]  There is a direct link to the example of Christ, the words themselves are strongly evocative of the love and grace of our Lord even if not precise quotations of Jesus or Paul.[46] 

Entrusting to the Just Judge

In 1 Peter’s anchor text (2:21-25), Peter asserts that the Lord “entrusted himself to him who judges justly” providing a further example for the believers.  Clowney reminds the believers that the heart of Peter’s message is that they should fear the wrath of God far more than the wrath of humans.[47]  Elliott translates “continued entrusting” as “committed his cause” which echoes Jesus’ “Father, into your hands I commit my spirit” (Luke 23:46).[48]  He committed himself to the Just One, a reminder that God is just at a level believers do not experience in this unjust world.  Jesus suffered unjustly at the hands of the Jews and the unjust Pontius Pilate, providing an example that should characterise the behaviour of the believer that they must entrust and commit their judgement to the Just God.[49]

Again, in chapter 5:6-7 the believers are exhorted to humble themselves under the mighty hand of God but he adds a vital detail.  Contrary to the unjust judges of the world who persecute and revile them, this just God, is safe to commit to because he cares for them (5:6-7).[50]  Elliott notes the parallel with Mark 6: 34 and Jesus’ compassion on the crowd “because they were like sheep without a shepherd”.[51]  In a world that is murderous, as in Jesus’ crucifixion, the devil “prowls around like a roaring lion” (v8), and the believers need to entrust themselves to the just judge (2:23) and cast their anxieties on him because he cares (5:7).[52]  As Elliott notes, the exhortation to trust provides the foundation for Peter’s warning about the roaring lion, the devil (v8).[53]

Applying Christ’s Example across Household Relationships

Within the motif of example, Peter focuses on the household and the responsibilities of domestic slaves (2:18-25), wives (3:1-6) and husbands (3:7) as well as elders and youths (5:1-4).[54]  The application has a clear purpose “keep your conduct among the Gentiles honourable, so that when they speak against you as evildoers, they may see your good deeds and glorify God on the day of visitation.” (2:12).  In the context of verse 21 and Jesus’ example that they should follow, Peter gives quite direct instruction in subordination to governing authorities (2:13-17), slaves for their pagan masters (2:18-25), Christian wives of pagan husbands (3:1-6) and Christian husbands for their wives (v7) and a general, communal relationship (3:8-12).[55]

Slaves

It seems a hard thing that a slave should be exhorted to endure beatings unjustly (2:20).  Elliott notes that Peter addresses slaves first in his instructions in contrast with the “oikonomia” tradition (husband-wife/parents-children/masters-slaves) of Ephesians, Colossians, 1 Timothy and Titus but this is indicative of Peter’s attribution of slaves as paradigms for the household of faith (2:16).[56]  Slaves were the bottom rung of society apart from foreigners and day labourers.[57]  Peter instructs believers to “live as people who are free… but living as servants of God” (2:16).  As Clowney notes, the Lord, who they sought to emulate came not to be ministered to but to minister; their freedom “binds them to their calling”.  They are free precisely in bondage to God.[58]

Wives and Husbands

At first read, the instruction to wives has nothing to do with Jesus as exemplar but context is everything.  In 1 Peter 3:1, hot on the heels of the key passage about following in Jesus footsteps (2:21), Peter says “Likewise, wives, be subject…”.  This is not a standalone passage.  It builds on the key passage, shifting to chiasm whilst retaining similar structure and expression to the previous passage.[59]  It is clear that similar to the relationship between the slave and master, the thrust of Peter is not so much about the relationship of wife to husband, this is about the approval of God.  Their adorning is a precious spirit in the eyes of God, gentle and quiet (v4).  Clowney notes that they are not to pattern themselves after the vain traditions of their society, but as Christian pilgrims in a hostile world.[60]  This is the same as the slaves’ instruction and is modelled by Jesus in his purity (2:22-23).  Both wives and slaves would normally be instructed as part of the household in traditional writing of first century, as chattels rather than individuals, whereas Elliott notes that early Christian writers tended to address both as responsible moral agents.[61] Clowney comments, “Christian women submit to their husbands… not because they are… inferior, for they are God’s elect.  Rather they submit for the Lord’s sake…”.[62]  Sarah, subordinate to Abraham, was yet a model of obedience to God despite her husband’s flaws that are very clear in Genesis 12 and 20 (lying about their relationship) and 21 (moral weakness in the matter of Hagar and Ishmael).[63]  Husbands are somewhat brushed over (v7).  Nevertheless, verse 7 contains a quite beautiful reminder that husbands and wives are “heirs together of the grace of life”.  Clearly, Peter is referring to believing husbands with believing wives, reflective probably of the culture where a wife follows the husband’s faith.[64]  Elliott notes Peter’s omission of traditional control language of husbands over wives.[65]  Indeed, he notes that the relationship is based in knowledge and insight (kata gnōsin – lit. “in accord with knowledge, insight).[66]  The co-heir phrase of Peter’s is unique in the New Testament and links back to chapter 1:4 referencing “the imperishable, undefiled and unfading” inheritance of all believers.[67]  As co-heirs, husbands are to honour their wives, echoing the example given by Paul of Christ’s sacrificial care for his bride, the church (Eph 5:25-29) however, 1 Peter omits the love relationship mentioned in Ephesians (v25).  As such whilst broadly, a link can be drawn to Christ’s relationship with the church, it is not as explicit as that in Ephesians.[68]  Nevertheless, Christ entrusted himself to the just Judge (2:23) rather than asserting power, and likewise, husbands aren’t called to exercise authority or control, but rather knowledge and insight.[69]  This reflects honour between Christ and the church and indeed, Jesus’ own counter-cultural relationship with women (Mark 7:24-30; Luke 8:38-42; John 4:7-42).[70]

Elders and Youth

The third specific groups addressed by Peter within the exemplar motif, are elders and youth.  In chapter 5:1-4, Clowney notes that Peter is moving to the end of his life and leadership and he turns his attention to those who will lead in his stead and he calls for humility and bold resistance to evil.[71]  Elliott notes the similar pairing to masters and slaves, wives and husbands is now in the juxtaposition of elders and youth.[72]  The Elders are called to be examples (typoi pl of typos or “type”, “model”, “example”)[73] and the instruction for elders and youth is similar to the “doing what is right” (agathopoiia) urged on all believers by Peter.[74]  This perpetuates the exemplar pattern established in chapter 2 (v21) where Christ left an example (hypogrammon) to follow.  Elders now become examples (typoi) to the flock, creating a chain of imitation that extends Jesus’ servant leadership through successive generations in the community of believers.

Application: Eschatological Hope Enables Christlike Conduct

The vision of future hope in Peter’s first epistle isn’t abstract but flows instead directly from Christ’s own pattern.  Just as Jesus suffered before his glory (1:11; 3:18-22) so Christians follow the same pattern with Christ as pioneer and leader.  Just as God vindicated Jesus through resurrection and exaltation, Christians today in hostile environments such as the recent Tibetan persecutions, who follow Jesus’ example are assured of the same outcome.[75]

Believers therefore have eschatological confidence which enables them to conduct themselves after the pattern of Jesus.  Jesus “entrusted himself to him who judges justly” (2:23) and was vindicated. Christians are enabled to endure injustice without retaliating, knowing that God will judge rightly (4:5-6).  This certainty of future vindication allows believers to have the freedom to accept wrong, to love their enemies and to maintain a faithful witness regardless of the cost whether in Muslim-majority nations or even in secular workplace hostility (3:9, 15-16).

Peter explicitly links Jesus as exemplar for believers’ sufferings: “But rejoice insofar as you share Christ’s sufferings, that you may also rejoice and be glad when his glory is revealed.” (4:13).  This is not mere moral imitation or putting on a virtue.[76]  It is participation in this proven pattern of suffering then glory vividly illustrated in Christ, being transformed from within.[77]  Believers cannot atone, but they can find example the crucifixion.[78]   It is assurance that Christians follow in the footsteps of Christ so that when the “Chief Shepherd appears”, believers who follow his example through suffering, will “receive the unfading crown of glory” (5:4).  As Bonhoeffer notes, it is an antidote to cheap grace through conforming to the form and image of Christ in enduring holiness (2:9).[79]

Conclusion

Peter presents a radical subversion of Graeco-Roman ethics by replacing cultural exemplars with Christ and familial identity with membership in God’s household.  First century social conduct was marked by seeking honour and self-preservation.  Peter subverts this in two realities for the believers: their new identity as God’s elect people and Christ’s pattern as the suffering servant.

Jesus’ example pervades the epistle, not as mere moral or ethical instruction, but as a proven pattern of suffering leading to justification.  His refusal to revile when reviled, or to retaliate against injustice and to entrust himself to the just judge are all footsteps for the Christian believer to walk in.  Peter extends the pattern through household relationships (slaves, wives, husbands and elders/youths) and shapes the community to respond to persecution.  The community of believers were encouraged to endure because they had an exemplar who they could follow on the path to glory.

The essential message of the epistle is that future hope sustains present conduct.  Believers who share Christ’s sufferings are assured of sharing his glory because of God’s vindication of Jesus.  Therefore, they don’t engage in wishful thinking but have confidence in a tested pattern.  When the Chief Shepherd appears, the believers “will receive the unfading crown of glory” (5:4).[80] The power of this epistle is in taking shame and making it honour by redefining the judge as the one who matters.  In the family of God, those who follow the footsteps of Christ (regardless of how they are despised by those around them) have significance.

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[1] For brevity, the author will be referred to as Peter throughout this essay. Craig L. Blomberg and Darlene M. Seal, From Pentecost to Patmos: An Introduction to Acts through Revelation, 2nd ed. (London: Apollos, 2021), 647.

[2] Unless otherwise indicated, all Scripture quotations are from The ESV Bible

[3] Katie Marcar, “Following in the Footsteps: Exemplarity, Ethnicity and Ethics in 1 Peter,” New Testament Studies 68.3 (2022): 256; Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, 2nd ed. (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2014), 688.

[4] Marcar, “Following in the Footsteps,” 254.

[5] Joseph H. Thayer, Thayer’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, 4th Ed. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1982), 642.

[6] Thayer, Thayers, 51.

[7] Blomberg and Seal, From Pentecost to Patmos, 665.

[8] Marcar, “Following in the Footsteps,” 254.

[9] Plato, The Republic, trans. Desmond Lee, 2nd Ed. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd, 1955), 370 quoted in; Marcar, “Following in the Footsteps,” 256.

[10] Philo, On the Account of the World’s Creation Given by Moses (De Opificio Mundi), trans. F. H. Colson and G. H. Whitaker (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961), 144 quoted in ; Marcar, “Following in the Footsteps,” 256.

[11] Marcar, “Following in the Footsteps,” 257.

[12] Marcar, “Following in the Footsteps,” 256; also see Keener, IVP Commentary, 688; and John Hall Elliott, 1 Peter: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, 1 online resource vols., Bible; v. 37B; 37B (New Haven &, London: Yale University Press ; Bloomsbury Publishing, 2021), 331.

[13] Marcar, “Following in the Footsteps,” 260.

[14] Marcar, “Following in the Footsteps,” 258.

[15] Marcar, “Following in the Footsteps,” 265.

[16] Thayer, Thayers, 496.

[17] Marcar, “Following in the Footsteps,” 261.

[18] Marcar, “Following in the Footsteps,” 261; see also David A. DeSilva, An Introduction to the New Testament: Contexts, Methods and Ministry Formation, 2nd ed. (Leicester: Apollos, 2018), 848.

[19] Keener, IVP Commentary, 688; Elliott, 1 Peter, 331.

[20] DeSilva, Intro to the NT, 848.

[21] Keener, IVP Commentary, 688.

[22] Keener, IVP Commentary, 692.

[23] Pieter Vos, “Neither Hypocrisy nor Replication: A Protestant Account of Imitating Christ as Moral Exemplar,” International Journal of Systematic Theology 19.3 (2017): 274.

[24] Elliott, 1 Peter, 513.

[25] Edmund Clowney, The Message of 1 Peter, The Bible Speaks Today (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 116.

[26] Clowney, 1 Peter, 116.

[27] Elliott, 1 Peter, 547; Blomberg and Seal, From Pentecost to Patmos, 664.

[28] Elliott, 1 Peter, 547.

[29] DeSilva, Intro to the NT, 850.

[30] Clowney, 1 Peter, 117.

[31] Karen H Jobes, 1 Peter (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament) (Baker Academic, 2022), 360; see also Robert H Gundry, A Survey of the New Testament (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1994), 442.

[32] Elliott, 1 Peter, 711.

[33] Gundry, A Survey of the New Testament, 442.

[34] Gundry, A Survey of the New Testament, 442.

[35] Clowney, 1 Peter, 120.

[36] Clowney, 1 Peter, 122.

[37] Clowney, 1 Peter, 123.

[38] Keener, IVP Commentary, 696; If the refutation of Peter’s authorship is accepted or this is somehow prophetic; note Gundry, A Survey of the New Testament, 437; see also Blomberg and Seal, From Pentecost to Patmos, 649.

[39] DeSilva, Intro to the NT, 852.

[40] Keener, IVP Commentary, 692.

[41] A. T. Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament, Accordance Electronic. (Altamonte Springs: OakTree Software, 2001) NB. no page no. available in accordance.

[42] Elliott, 1 Peter, 601.

[43] Blomberg and Seal, From Pentecost to Patmos, 667; DeSilva, Intro to the NT, 847.

[44] Elliott, 1 Peter, 600.

[45] Clowney, 1 Peter, 136.

[46] Clowney, 1 Peter, 137; Elliott, 1 Peter, 602.

[47] Clowney, 1 Peter, 122.

[48] Elliott, 1 Peter, 531.

[49] Elliott, 1 Peter, 531–32.

[50] DeSilva, Intro to the NT, 847.

[51] Elliott, 1 Peter, 852.

[52] Blomberg and Seal, From Pentecost to Patmos, 673–74.

[53] Elliott, 1 Peter, 852.

[54] Blomberg and Seal, From Pentecost to Patmos, 649.

[55] Gordon D Fee and Douglas Stuart, How to Read the Bible Book by Book: A Guided Tour (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2002), 405.

[56] Elliott, 1 Peter, 513–14.

[57] Elliott, 1 Peter, 514.

[58] Clowney, 1 Peter, 100.

[59] Elliott, 1 Peter, 552.

[60] Clowney, 1 Peter, 127.

[61] Elliott, 1 Peter, 552.

[62] Clowney, 1 Peter, 128.

[63] Blomberg and Seal, From Pentecost to Patmos, 665.

[64] Elliott, 1 Peter, 574.

[65] Elliott, 1 Peter, 574.

[66] Elliott, 1 Peter, 575; Blomberg and Seal, From Pentecost to Patmos, 666.

[67] Elliott, 1 Peter, 580.

[68] Elliott, 1 Peter, 583.

[69] Clowney, 1 Peter, 134–35.

[70] Elliott, 1 Peter, 594.

[71] Clowney, 1 Peter, 197; Blomberg and Seal, From Pentecost to Patmos, 673.

[72] Elliott, 1 Peter, 810.

[73] Elliott, 1 Peter, 832.

[74] Elliott, 1 Peter, 813.

[75] Dale Tuggy, “Jesus as an Exemplar of Faith in the New Testament,” International Journal for Philosophy of Religion 81.1–2 (2017): 185.

[76] Vos, “Neither Hypocrisy nor Replication,” 272.

[77] Vos, “Neither Hypocrisy nor Replication,” 272.

[78] Blomberg and Seal, From Pentecost to Patmos, 663.

[79] Bonhoeffer The Cost of Discipleship and Ethics quoted in Vos, “Neither Hypocrisy nor Replication,” 273; Gundry, A Survey of the New Testament, 441; DeSilva, Intro to the NT, 849.

[80] Blomberg and Seal, From Pentecost to Patmos, 673.

Bibliography

Blomberg, Craig L., and Darlene M. Seal. From Pentecost to Patmos: An Introduction to Acts through Revelation. 2nd ed. London: Apollos, 2021.

Clowney, Edmund. The Message of 1 Peter. The Bible Speaks Today. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1988.

DeSilva, David A. An Introduction to the New Testament: Contexts, Methods and Ministry Formation. 2nd ed. Leicester: Apollos, 2018.

Elliott, John Hall. 1 Peter: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. 1 online resource vols. Bible; v. 37B; 37B. New Haven &, London: Yale University Press ; Bloomsbury Publishing, 2021.

Fee, Gordon D, and Douglas Stuart. How to Read the Bible Book by Book: A Guided Tour. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2002.

Gundry, Robert H. A Survey of the New Testament. Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1994.

Jobes, Karen H. 1 Peter (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament). Baker Academic, 2022.

Keener, Craig S. The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament. 2nd ed. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2014.

Marcar, Katie. “Following in the Footsteps: Exemplarity, Ethnicity and Ethics in 1 Peter.” New Testament Studies 68.3 (2022): 253–73.

Philo. On the Account of the World’s Creation Given by Moses (De Opificio Mundi). Translated by F. H. Colson and G. H. Whitaker. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961.

Plato. The Republic. Translated by Desmond Lee. 2nd Ed. Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd, 1955.

Robertson, A. T. Word Pictures in the New Testament. Accordance Electronic. Altamonte Springs: OakTree Software, 2001.

Thayer, Joseph H. Thayer’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament. 4th Ed. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1982.

Tuggy, Dale. “Jesus as an Exemplar of Faith in the New Testament.” International Journal for Philosophy of Religion 81.1–2 (2017): 171–91.

Vos, Pieter. “Neither Hypocrisy nor Replication: A Protestant Account of Imitating Christ as Moral Exemplar.” International Journal of Systematic Theology 19.3 (2017): 271–86.